03d: Building on Our Beginnings

Annuit Coeptis
On October 19, 1781 the main British army in North America surrendered to the Americans at Yorktown. The Redcoats were well trained and well equipped, as were the mercenaries they hired to help fight the Americans. Yet they were ultimately no match for the ragged Continentals, who were fighting on their home soil for their civic rights. Early the next year, Britain initiated peace talks. On September 3, 1783 America and Great Britain signed the Treaty of Paris, acknowledging the independence, sovereignty, and freedom of the 13 states. The new nation's boundaries were Canada, Florida (now returned to Spain), the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mississippi River.

On June 20, 1782 Congress approved the Great Seal of the United States. The Latin motto “Annuit Coeptis” (He/She/It Has Approved Of Our Efforts)  was included on the new nation's Great Seal to acknowledge the new nation’s blessed start . Unlike the English language, which requires a subject or subject pronoun for every verb - "I have approved you have approved, he/she/it has approved" - Latin does not. A Latin speaker would naturally supply a subject for the verb "annuit" - be it Providence, or God, or Lady Luck. How one chooses to fill in the blank ultimately depends on one's personal belief system. The Great Seal's designer, Charles Thompson, explained his work in these words:

"The pyramid signifies Strength and Duration: the Eye over it & the Motto allude to the many signal interpositions of providence in favour of the American cause."

There are many complicated interpretations of the symbols on the Great Seal, which need not concern us here. It's simplest to say the Americans were deeply aware of how surprising their victory had been, and felt very grateful - whoever they were grateful to. They certainly wanted to build upon their nation's beginnings as best they could. But could the new nation come up with an effective government which reflected its lofty ideals? The Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777 and came into effect in 1781. They strongly favored states’ rights, as one might expect from colonies revolting against a strong central government. Yet a strong  central government was necessary for various reasons, especially internal settlement and foreign affairs. Winning the Revolution was quite an achievement, but this was neither the first nor the last revolution to be won by a determined splinter group. A tougher task was ahead and an even greater miracle was about to take place: the creation of the United States of America.

Most issues before the Constitutional Convention could be settled through common sense. Paper money would be issued, a post office established, an army and navy maintained. Less sensibly, women were granted no citizenship rights, which was unbelievably unfair. There were other problematic issues. Large and heavily populated states, like Virginia, argued for proportional representation; smaller states wanted equal representation. Finally it was decided to have proportional representation in the lower house of Congress, the House of Representatives, and equal representation for each state in the senior house, the Senate. Another issue concerned slavery. Representatives of Northern states wanted slaves counted as equal to free people for purposes of determining each state's tax burden, but to count at all toward determining a state's number of seatsin the House of Representatives. Ultimately, it was agreed that for tax levies and House membership, a slave would count as three-fifths, or 60%, of a free person. Sadly, it seems there was no discussion of the institution itself. This omission nearly destroyed the United States before its one hundredth birthday. Significantly, the Constitutional Convention established a unique and complicated balance of powers between the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The plan for the new United States government was truly a work of art. But would it work?

President Washington and Foreign Entanglements
On March 4, 1789, the United States government officially took power. There was really only one candidate for President, George Washington. Some Americans wanted to name Washington the king or the dictator, but Washington (to his eternal credit) had said a farewell to kings.  Unanimously selected by the Electoral College, Washington was inaugurated as President on April 30, 1789; he was also unanimously awarded a second term in 1792.

Although his only work experience was as a surveyor, planter, and army officer, Washington's wise leadership contributed mightily to his new country’s success. He organized a national government, developed policies for settlement of territories previously held by Britain and Spain, and stabilized the northwestern frontier. He presided over the admission to the Union, on completely equal terms, of three new states: Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796). Finally, in his Farewell Address, Washington demonstrated great diplomatic insight, by advising that the United States "steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”  Washington's experience in the Seven Years' War had soured him on involvement in European power politics. The French Revolution of 1789 presented Washington with a dilemma. America owed a gread debt of gratitude to King Louis XVI for his personal support, but American smpathy lay strictly with for the revolutionaries. Wisely, the United States maintained a strict neutrality. Although Washington never spoke the exact words "avoid foreign entanglements" so often attributed to him, examination of the his printed farewell address shows that the phrase well sums up his approach.

Yet Washington himself realized that America could not just stick its head in the sand. For one thing, the United States had borders with British colonies (Canada), French colonies (Louisiana) and Spanish colonies (Florida and Mexico). Overseas issues also proved troublesome. Dealings with the Barbary Pirates caused the United States (even during Washington's presidency) to pay tribute. Later, the United States had to negotiate for hostages, create a standing Navy, and fight wars with Tripoli (in 1801) and Algiers (in 1815). Increasing friction with Great Britain over mostly commercial matters brought on the War of 1812. Yet overall, Washington practiced what he had preached. In 1793, he himself renounced the 1778 treaty with France because America was not strong enough to side with France against Britain, Spain, and Holland. Although this decision was hardly worthy of a Virginia gentleman, it was a wise and necessary step for an American President. America is very fortunate that George Washington could tell the difference.